The Choice Of Qualitative And Quantitative Psychology Essay

The survival of the fittest Of Qualitative And denary Psychology EssayThis chapter presents a detailed justification of the query come near employ to attend the enquiry questions and achieve the hire and bearings come inlined in chapter unity. The chapter begins with an overview of loving seek radiation diagram. function thirty discusses the seek paradigm as the speculative look into approach. section xxx discusses the interrogation methodology. Section xxx discusses the methods espo recitation in this explore for training aim. The chapter outlines the sampling techniques, piloting get wind and outline techniques. The chapter also illustrates the search validity, reliability, triangulation, ethical consideration and generalizability of the study. query Design look for is defined as an in-depth study of a particular issue or phenomenon which the looker investigates to acquit problems associate to that issue/phenomenon Marsh tout ensemble, 1997 brewe rton and Millward, 2001 Wilkinson and Birmingham, 2003 Cres healthful, 2007 Bryman and Bell, 2007). In the social sciences, various queryers present the explore overview the theoretical and working(a) approaches in incompatible ways. The differences in presentation keep be cl previous(predicate) identified amidst the clay sculptures of Sarantakos (1998) Crotty (2005) and Saunders et al., (2007). These authors agree that social research evict be thought of in terms of the theoretical and functional approaches. However, the terminology select varies mingled with. For instance, they use divergent terminology which ass be conf employ for early(a) police detectives. This section pardons iiisome different research designs in other to choose the give up research design for the study.Sarantakos (1998) identified three directs of research (see jut out xxx). The first level holds the researchers theoretical approach which combines the epistemology and theoretical pers pective, which Sarantakos call(a)s the research paradigm. The second and third levels represent the practical approach which contains the research methodology and methods respectively.Figure xxx Sarantakos social research design, adopted from Sarantakos (1998)Crotty (2005) named tetrad different research levels for the social research (see Figure xxxx). The first twain stages comprise the theoretical approach which contains the research epistemology and theoretical perspective. The finding dickens stages comprise the practical approach the research methodology and methods. Based on Crotty (2005), the four levels atomic number 18 inter low-level, as the excerpt of the research epistemology is followed by the excerption of theoretical perspective, the choice of study methodology and the choice of specific methods of info garnerion and epitome. The last two stages methodology and methods of Crotty and Saratakos dumbfound ar in faithfulness similar. However, in terms of t heoretical approaches, Crotty outlines two levels epistemology and theoretical perspective atomic number 18 merged into one level the research paradigm in Sarantakos mystify. Figure xxx presents Crotty (2005) research design.Figure xxx Crotty social research design, adopted from Crotty (2005)Saunders et al., (2007) offer a different model for social research design which they call the research onion. According to this model, in that location atomic number 18 six levels in social science research. The research levels are philosophies (e.g. interpretivism) approaches (contain either inductive or deductive) strategies (the research methodology) choices (types of research methods) sequence horizons ( cross-sectional or longitudinal) and techniques and procedures (which includes entropy requestion and analysis techniques). In this model, the theoretical approach contains research philosophies and approaches (inductive and deductive). Meanwhile, the practical approach contains th e strategies as a methodology and the other three levels contain the research methods. The methods include twain data collection methods and data analysis methods. Figure xxx presents the research onion gibe to Saunders et al., (2007 132)Figure xxx Research onion, Saunders et al., (2007 132)The three research designs render consider up to(p) overlaps in their consideration into the theoretical and practical approaches. This research centralizees on Sarantakos model, since it reflects to a greater extent appropriately the research design adopted in this study. The following sections discuss in details this research design.The Research ParadigmAs mentioned early in Sarantakos research design, the first level reflects the theoretical approach and is named the res separately paradigm (Sarantakos, 1998). The paradigm is a particular penning that is apply to test and take social phenomena (Gephart, 1999 Denzin and Lincoln, 2005). Guba and Lincoln (1994) categorize social science research into two models a subjectivist soft ( arrive ativist) model and an objectivist numeric (positivism and post-positivism) model. Guba (1990) explained that there is a third relativist paradigm called naive realism which combines the subjectivist soft model and objectivist valued model and its a paradigm on its own. Later, several authors (e.g. Reichardt and Rallis, 1994 Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998 Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004 Pansiri, 2005 Creswell and Clark, 2007) concur that the paradigm which mixes soft and numerical approaches is realism. board xxx compares positivism, post-positivism, constructivism with pragmatism.Table xxx Compares different positivism, post-positivism, constructivism with pragmatism (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998 23)Paradigm Positivsm Post-positivism Pragmatism ConstructivismMethods Quantitative Primarily Quantitative Quantitative + Qualitative QualitativeLogic Deductive Primarily deductive Deductive + Inductive InductiveEpistemology Objecti ve point of view. Knower and cognise are dualism Modified dualism. Findings probably impersonally true two objective and subjective point of view Subjective point of view. Knower and know are inseparable.Axiology doubt is value-free Inquiry involves values, save they whitethorn be controlled set play a large role in interpreting results Inquiry is value-boundOntology Nave realism Critical or transcendental realism hire external reality. Choose explanations that best produce desired outcomes RelativismCausal Linkages hearty causes temporarily precedent or simultaneous with cause There are some lawful, fenceable relationships among social phenomena. These may be known imperfectly. Causes are identifiable in probabi itemizationic sense that changes over time. There may be causal relationships, but we provide never be able to pin them down All entities simultaneously shaping each other. Its impracticable to distinguish causes from effectsPragmatismPragmatism is a term derive d from the Greek word pragma ungenerovictimization action, from which the words practice and practical come (James, 2000). Dewey (1920) explained that pragmatism philosophy discover the meaning of idea that needs to be suss out consequently. Therefore, when researcher judges a phenomenon, they must follow its empirical and practical consequences and note its impact on the study macrocosm (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998). Moreover, Easterby et al., (2008) explained that, by exploitation pragmatism, researchers have to study various(prenominal) experiences very well in indian lodge to develop an understanding of a particular phenomenon.Moreover, Krauss (2005) explained that the pragmatist paradigm focuses on qualitative versus duodecimal data and that to answer research questions, researchers have to mix objective and subjective approaches. Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998) clarified that by development pragmatism, the research logic contains deductive and inductive approaches. The refore, the pragmatism philosophy rejects the use of particular research philosophies, such(prenominal) as positivism, post-positivism and constructivism. In addition, Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998) explained that pragmatism focuses on both the meaning and the truth of ideas. Truth is what works at the time and it is not based on a dualism between whether reality is in certified of the mind or at bottom the mind. Therefore, when judging ideas, pragmatists consider their empirical and practical consequences.Pragmatism is a research philosophy that eliminates the need of making a forced choice regarding the research epistemology between constructivism and positivism (including post-positivism). A pragmatic paradigm dismisses traditional assumptions about the nature of friendship, truth and the nature of dubiousness. Furthermore, for pragmatists, the research question is more pregnant than the research method that is used (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004).Creswell (2003) explained th at the choice of the research paradigm (pragmatism) related mainly to the purpose and nature of the research questions. The pragmatism earmarked the researchers to study different interested areas by employing different sources of evidence (methods) that are appropriate and explain the study findings in a positive manner (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998 and Creswell, 2003). Therefore, pragmatism is classified as one of the suitable research philosophies in social and caution research that investigates beliefs and attitudes using mixed methodology that combines qualitative and quantitative approaches (Creswell, 2003).Reichardt and Rallis (1994) explained that there is much debate about whether pragmatism is in fact a research philosophy because it holds the centre-ground between two well- bring ined social research philosophies. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) and Robson (2005) corroborate that pragmatism is no longer a debatable philosophy but has achieved widespread use in social re search. To achieve the aim of this research, pragmatism has been chosen as a research philosophy. The next part leave behind discuss the mix between the qualitative and quantitative research approaches.The Choice of Qualitative and Quantitative Research ApproachDiscussions have been held by series of researchers in connection with the difference between quantitative and qualitative approaches, including beer maker and Hunter (1989), Silverman (2000), Brewerton and Milward (2001), Holliday (2002), Thomas (2003), Corbetta (2003) and Cooper and Schindler (2005). While quantitative researchers base their accounts on figures and numerical in lineation, harmonize to Gelo et al., (2008), qualitative researchers rely on non-numerical data, for instance words, narration and feelings. Maanen et al., (1982 32) introduced a verbal picture to help readers understand the difference between both research types as followsQuality is the essential character or nature of something quantity is the amount. Quality is the what quantity the how much. Qualitative refers to the meaning, the definition or analogy or model or metaphor characterizing something, while quantitative assumes the meaning and refers to a measure of it.Furthermore, Bryman (1996) and Cooper and Schindler (2005) noted that quantitative and qualitative approaches are both valid and researchers can use either. Clarke and Dawson (2000) and Gray (2009) suggested that according to the nature of the research, researchers can mix different approaches, as it hard in deciding the better or more useful approach. Miller and Brewer (2003) confirmed that using a mixed method approach decreases the weaknesses and limitations of the research. Table xxx compare quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods procedures (Creswell, 2003 19).Table xx comparison between quantitative and qualitative research ( book of facts Creswell, 200319)Tend to or typically Qualitative Approaches Quantitative Approaches Mixed Methods ApproachesU se these philosophical assumptionsEmploy these strategies of inquiry Constructivist/Advocacy /Participatory knowledge claimPhenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, case study, and narrative Post-positivist knowledge claimSurveys and experiments Pragmatist knowledge claimSequential, con topical, and transformativeEmploy these methods Open-ended questions, emerging approaches, schoolbook or image data Closed-ended questions, pre arrestd approaches, numeric data Both open-and closed-ended questions, both emerging and pre designated approaches, and both quantitative and qualitative data and analysisUse these practices of research as the researcher Position himself or herself and collects participant meanings. Focuses on a single concept or phenomenon buzz off personal values into the study Studies the context or setting of participants. Validates the the true of findings Makes interpretations of data Creates an agenda for change or reform Collaborates with the participants Test s or verifies theories or explanation Identifies multivariates to study Relates variables in questions or hypotheses Uses standard of validity and reliability Observes and measures cultivation numerically Use unbiased approaches Employs statistical procedures Collects both quantitative and qualitative data Develops a rationale for mixing Integrates the data at different stages of inquiry Presents visual pictures of the procedures in the study. Employs the practices of both qualitative and quantitative research.Additionally, there are different ways to implement quantitative and qualitative approaches in one study. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) summarized these in Figure xx. This study combines qualitative and quantitative approaches in a sequential and equal way. The study starts with a qualitative approach through the analysis of supple recompense players (banks and mobile operators) documents and websites. This go forth then be followed by a quantitative approach using a qu estionnaire stick with of potential consumers of mobile pay services.Time state decisionConcurrent SequentialParadigm emphasis decision contact StatusQUAL + QUAN QUAL QUANQUAN QUALDominant StatusQUAL + quanQUAN + qual QUAL quanqual QUANQUAN qualquan QUALFigure xxx Mixed methods approach design matrix (the design used in this study is shown in bold).Note. qual stands for qualitative, quan stands for quantitative, + stands for concurrent, stands for sequential, capital letters denote high priority or weight, and land case letters denote lower priority or weight.Source Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 200422. Notation based on Morse, 1991.The Research MethodologyCrotty (2005 3) identified the research methodology research process asthe strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and use of methods to the desired outcomes.Furthermore, Crotty (2005) made a clarification of research methodology as a strategy built on it, the data collection methods, and linking between the use of research methods and research outcomes. In addition, Crotty (2005) explained that there are different kinds of research methodology, and researchers should select the most suitable for their research topic.The research methods for this studyHaving reviewed series of literatures, several factors led to the choice of methods used for this research.Triangulation methods have been proposed for this research and this leave alone complement each other in regulate to yield a quality result. According to Tshakkori and Teddlie, (2003), triangulation is one way that involves a combination of data collection to get good results. Although the term triangulation has different meanings, it is associated with using combinations of methods with a strategy of convergent validity being honey oil (Bryman 2004). Kholoud (2009) cites Johnson et al., (2007) who identified four types of triangulation data triangulation, investigat or triangulation, theory triangulation, and methodological triangulation. Kholoud yet cites the equal authors for defining ways in which quantitative and qualitative methods can be combined.From research on technology word meaning perspective, technology toleration has a dominant theoretical urge which is positivist in nature. The current research aim is to design a expective viable model of demeanour headings of users of technology services (in this case mobile payment). This objective requires the subject matter of a structured, well-defined framework, and definite measurements that could establish relationships between variables, such that inferences could be made from the research study model to a larger population. nearly of these qualities can be addressed by quantitative research methods (Johnson et al., 2007).The arousal of this study is to test hypotheses which relates to the proposed abstract framework model as well as different hypothesized relationships prev iously accepted in technology word sense context. The conceptual drive of this research is deductive in nature. The research proposes to follow a confirmatory strategy of research that needs empirical analysis (a way of proving or disproving previously assumed hypotheses related to mobile payment espousal).Despite the fact that this study entrust be mainly quantitative, qualitative methods pass on be employed at the initial stages of the study. Structured observations give be employed allowing for in-depth assessment of mobile payment schemes in the countrified in show to determine those that could be researched.Figure xxx shows the football team main steps in a quantitative research process. To answer the research question, this study aim to follow the itinerary in the order in which they appear as shown to a lower place. However, the steps at times qualification overlap during the course of the research.Figure xxx Process of Quantitative Research as outlined by Bryman B ell (2007).In this study, theories and literatures underpinning this study exit be advanced to guide the research deductively.Research DesignsThe major reason of this research is in testing the hypotheses which could explain the fluctuation in the dependent variables. Such sees fit a correlation study design as answer ford herein.Correlation DesignsCorrelational design measures two or more variables with the eventuality of measuring the dependent variables. It does not manipulate one or more independent variables.The major premise of this research was that if a statistical significant relationship was in humanity between the independent and the dependent variables, there would be the possibility of predicting the dependent variable using information available in the other variable. Within quantitative methods, the investigation used correlation research design (see Figure xxx) to determine if there was an existence of some relationship between independent constructs and the dep endent constructs of behavior intention to use mobile payment.Figure xxx Illustration of the Research Designs according to Mugenda (2008, p. 65)In this kind of scenario, the research study impart apply reliability coefficients, multiple correlation coefficients, generalized linear regression model coefficients and elbow room model coefficients for different study assessments of the collected data. These will be discussed belowa) Reliability analysis will be carried out using Cronbachs important commonly called coefficient for Internal Consistency (IC) and inter-item correlation coefficient. According to De Vellis (1991), reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument would yield the corresponding results after repeated trials. Cronbachs Alpha provides information on the degree to which each item in the construct correlates with at least one other item of the construct. The analysis can estimate the proportion of true micturate pas seul that is captured by the indicators by comparing the sum of indicator variances with the variance of the sum scale. Cronbachs statistic was computed as followsCronbach = = number of items *number of items 1Where s denotes the variance for the number of individual items s2 denotes the variance for the sum of all questions or items (which is abstruse and unique, and, therefore, uncorrelated across respondents), then the variance of the sum will be the same as the sum of variances of the individual questions/items. Therefore, coefficient alpha will be equal to zero. If all items are perfectly reliable and measure the same thing (true score), then coefficient alpha is equal to 1. In this investigation, the construct would institute an acceptable level of reliability if the Cronbachs alpha was at least 0.6.b) fivefold correlation coefficients (R), will be used to describe the extent to which a dependent variable was explained by a set of independent variables. The statistic was used to measure the pr edictive cater of the model that has been estimated. The value of R ranges from 0 to 1, and in this study, neither threshold nor the minimum value is pre-determined but instead the statistic only state the percentage variation in the dependent variables as explained by the independent variables.Symbolically, the (R) statistic is defined as followsR =Where observ is the measurement of random variable observ on individual i. The est.observ and est.mean are the predicted measurements and mean values respectively. The mean of measurements for the n individuals is also factored into the calculation in equation 3.1 in order to obtain R.A complete analysis of the entire model requires an examination of the virtuousness of fit using R and adjusted R-squared. The goodness of fit measures how well the model parameter estimates is able to explain the variations in the dependent factor of the model and reproduce the sample covariance matrix. The adjusted R equally measures the goodness of fi t as does the R, but instead, the former statistic takes into account the degrees of freedom ( explicit as the number of observations and number of estimated coefficients) as express in equation 3.2. Thus,Adjusted R = 1c) The Generalized additive Regression model (GLM) coefficients are weighted coefficients that indicate the magnitude, direction and deduction of the possible linear relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The techniques measures both direct and indirect effects of the independent variables on dependent variable respectively. The technique handles the moderating effects in the analysis of linear models. The GLM was appropriate because of its nature of handling fixed factors, covariates and the interaction effects. The model results, will allow a direct comparison of the variance explained from both estimation measures.In the context of this study, it was hypothesized that three factors exertion expectancy, relevancy and social influence (cul ture) determine behaviour intentions. On the other hand, behaviour intentions together with facilitating conditions (technical support/training) determine usage. It was further postulated that the independent variables in the model were moderated by gender, age, experience and awareness, all of which required an appropriate modelling technique. Thus, the GLM that handled both direct and indirect effects were used in the form of the following equation (Eq. 3.4).Y = X + (X * M) + UWhere Y is a matrix with multivariate measurements of the response or dependent variablesX is a matrix of the block of independent variables is a matrix of parameters to be estimatedU is the vector of the error terms.d) The path model employs the path analysis statistical technique for decomposing correlations into different pieces for interpretation of effect. It allows one to compare the direct effects of variables in a complex frame of relationships.The path model measures direct effects or the possibl e lean of the independent variables on the dependent variable in the profits of variables. The path model only establishes linear relationships between variables and also indicates the predictive power of the model being evaluated. The mathematical relationships between the variables may be expressed as a set of linear equations, called the path model. According to Keeves, (1972) the primaeval principle of the path model that allows the linear equations to be estimated isr = p * rWhere i and j denote two variables in the network and the index k includes all variables from which paths lead directly to the dependent construct (j), r is the correlation coefficient and p is the path coefficient. Equation 3.5 can be expanded by successive applications of the formula itself to r. In this case, the errors from behaviour intentions and facilitating conditions all point at usage behaviour. Expressed in expanded form can be read directly from the path diagram by using the following direct relationships in this studyBIC = PEC + REC + SOCBUC = FOC + BICEBC = BUCWhere BIC is deportmental Intention, PEC is performance expectancy, REC is relevance, FOC is facilitating conditions, BUC is usage behaviour and EBC is expected benefits constructs respectively. In this study, a path coefficient with a negative sign implies an inverse relationship between constructs whereas a coefficient with a positive sign implies that there is a direct relationship between two constructs.Survey DesignsThere are two types of sentiments used when evaluating word meaning and use of technology as discussed in 3.2.1. These are longitudinal surveys and cross-sectional survey. Since mobile payment services being investigated are in their early years of introduction, the best survey method is a cross-sectional. By using cross-sectional survey, the study would be able to predict future usage.i) cross-sectional surveyThe study proposes to use a survey approach to collect data that could be a repres entative of the real phenomena in the population from which the study sample will be drawn. The study will focus on the link between end-users behaviour intentions to use mobile payment services. In IS/IT evaluation studies, cross-sectional survey methods are not unexampled because they have been used by several authors, Gefen et al., (2002), Chau and Hu (2001), Venkatesh and Davis (2000) and Venkatesh and Morris (2000).A cross-sectional survey design will be utilized to gather quantitative data to assess the relationships between the study variables. A cross-sectional study/research involves data collection that covers a one-off time period. entropy collection of individual observations can occur at one point in time or may be over a period of days, weeks or months. In the case of the current study, the data collection aim to be for a period of three months. According to Mugenda (2008), Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), this sort of survey helps to establish whether significant associa tions among variables exist. The additional value of this type of survey is that one can generate testable hypotheses, which the current study aims to do.Cross-sectional designs have three typical features there is no time dimension, only differences between groups are heedful rather than changes over time there is reliance on existent differences rather than change following any intervention and there is no allowance for differences to emerge over time and grouping individuals in the sample is based on existing differences or according to a fellowship or the independent variable to which they happened to belong rather than random allocation. The researcher was aware of the limitations of this type of investigation, but the research timeframe might not stand the use of a longitudinal study. When data is collected at more than one point in time and then later on, the study is considered longitudinal (Crestwell, 2003). Longitudinal studies are feasible when there is need to descri be the pattern and direction of change and stability (De Vaus, 2001).The objective of this study is to understand usage behaviour as a dependent variable that would predict the actual usage of the services in future. The current study will employ cross-sectional survey and college students will be used for this study. Behaviour intention is associated with self-predicted future usage of a new technology. Furthermore, measuring behaviour intention as a predictor of future usage behaviour is also important.The researcher believes that the experience college students will gain in using mobile payment services would impact on their behavioural intentions if they stand for to use the service in future. As reported in the conceptual framework section, behaviour intentions as a dependent variable heedful in a cross-sectional study can help to let on future usage of mobile payment services. It is because of these reasons that the current study proposes to use a cross-sectional survey met hod which will be carried out over a period of three months.STUDY POPULATIONMethods of Data CollectionThis section presents the final research level namely the research methods. Crotty (2005) defined research methods as the techniques used by researchers to collect and canvass the data required to answer the research questions. Moreover, according to Saunders et al., (2007), research methods are the various procedures used to collect data, such as questionnaire, observation and interviews, and to analyse it, e.g. statistical and non-statistical techniques, according to the nature of the research.Since this study is basically quantitative in nature, questionnaires will be used. Furthermore, to determine the research reliability and validity, the researcher will use multiple sources of evidence.The research method to be applied will be in accordance with the research objective. For this study, the practical objective will be to identify the main elements that influence consumer accep tance and use of mobile payment services. This objective will be achieved by designing a comprehensive questionnaire to identify the main factors that impact on consumers behavioural intentions towards the acceptance and use of mobile payment. In this regard, about 1000 questionnaires are proposed to be distributed to college students willing to participate in this research study.Structured InterviewsResearchers prepare themselves in advance by setting up a predetermined list of questions with limited option responses (closed questions). Usually structured interviews are associated with social surveys which aim to interview as wide range of respondents as possible to collect large volumes of data (Bernard, 2000 Denscombe, 2003). Saunders et al., (2007) classified the structured interview as a type of questionnaire which is administered face-to-face.Questionnaire SurveyBased on the proposed research model, the research questionnaire will be designed to identify the main constructs th at impact consumer behavioural intentions towards the acceptance and use of mobile payment. Thus, a questionnaire survey method will be applied in this study.Robson (2005) clarified the full benefits of using questionnaires in melody research within a survey strategy. Fink (19951) identified survey asA survey is a system for collecting information to describe, compare, or explain knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour. Survey involves setting objectives for information collection, designing research, administering and gain ground the instrument, analysing data, and reporting the resul